PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING IN HUNGARIAN MUSIC EDUCATION

Published in Journal of Research Music Education,
Volume XVII, Number 1, Spring 1969, p 125-134

THE HUNGARIAN METHOD of music education has been founded on many years of work by Zoltán Kodály and his disciples. Kodály realized in the early 1920s, at the beginning of his career, that Hungarian music education was rootless and ineffective. Hungarian composers had no acquaintance with their own people's music.  At the same time, audiences at concerts listened to the compositions of Kodály and Bartók without understanding, and often with opposition.  Both Kodály and Bartók thought that the source of renewal was to make general education meet folk traditions. They urged the nation to go to the source, to folk melodies for the musical mother-tongue, and to build works of art on that foundation.

Therefore, our method of music education is based on folk song.  We are in the fortunate position of having an enormous collection of folk music which has been polished for centuries; it has been systematized and continuously recorded by the folk music department of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.  We can go to rich sources for every stage of our music education:  we teach most of the musical elements, rhythmic and melodic motive, from folk songs.  The knowledge of old and modern classic compositions is closely connected with this process.  Our experiences show that twentieth-century Hungarian music inspired by folk songs offers an appropriate basis for accepting modern art.

Kodály suggested that the singing voice should be the instrument for general music education. The human voice, being available to everyone, free, and still the most beautiful instrument, can be the only real foundation of a general and broad musical culture (Visszatekintés (Retrospect), p. 175). Kodály definitely wanted to make the activities of singing lessons cover equally the emotional, motoric, somatic, and intellectual spheres of personality. He realized that music education should begin in kindergarten or even in nurseries.  “Music education can only be successful if started early.  Music education has the greatest effect from the age of 3-7 years during the most important period of the child’s intellectual and spiritual development,” (p. 90).

Besides singing, movement plays an important part in the activities of the human organism.  “A song is a spontaneous, natural language for a child, and the younger he is, the more movement he requires in addition. Music and exercise closely connected and singing games in the open air have been the greatest joy of children since ancient times.” (p. 62).

The essence of our relative solmization is that we choose melodic and rhythmic motives from folk nursery rhymes and folk songs.  In this way even the smallest teaching unit will be practiced within a round musical form. In relative solmization the interval relationships are the same but the pitch level changes. It is our method to practice motives chosen from songs on different pitch levels from the very beginning.  This activity affects the intellectual sphere, too.  Movement, clapping of rhythms, instruments, rhythm cards, hand signals, and notes make the practicing of motives varied. Already at kindergarten age, children learn to distinguish between high and low, quick and slow, loud and soft. All this will bring children to certain short but intensive periods of concentration and offers varying stimuli.

Kodály advises us in the introduction to his 333 Reading Exercises to practice global reading. “We should not read a melody note by note but try to take it in with one glance as we do with a map.”  This requirement develops rapid glance and power of comprehension.  He also calls the teacher's attention to the effect of observing little dissimilarities on developing observation.  We compare rhythmic and melodic motives on the basis of their similarities and dissimilarities. We arrange songs according to their starting motives, and so we lay the foundation of logical systematization.  Series of exercises developing these abilities, however, are always connected with singing games.  In this way “a good singing lesson is not a burden, but refreshment and a source of joy and gaiety” (p. 74).

Kodály stimulated this cultural revolution with the help of a new type of school, educating children's complex personality with five singing lessons and two choir singing periods weekly, as well as folk dance and instrumental chamber music.  The first school of special music education was organized in Kecskemét, Kodály’s native town.  The effect of daily singing on forming personality has been proven in the school. It has also contributed to sports achievements of the pupils as well as their well developed taste in art and intensive musical activities.  In Hungary, more than one hundred schools now have such special courses of music education. A child’s ear for music and sense of rhythm is tested before being taken into a musical class. According to Kodály’s will, however, children having no visible evidence of musical abilities are taken, too.  Sooner or later these children catch up with the others. On the basis of experiences concerning the development of musical abilities, Kodály said, “There is no unmusical child.”  (Observation and film recordings of certain stages of development are at the disposal of the Kecskemét Primary School of Music Education.)

Our experiences have proven that music education built up consciously has resulted in psychological and somatic changes in children's development.  These experiences suggested that we follow the effect of music education on the changes of children's personality with psychological tests as well.

Results of tests carried out during the period of 1962-1966 were reported at the Budapest (1964) and Interlochen (1966) ISME conferences. These tests have shown remarkable differences in rhythm, sound observation, gymnastics, and arithmetic abilities of school children in groups of special music education.  Also, somatic tests made by anthropologists reported high values in chest expansion and vital capacity of the musical groups.

Another part of the psychological experiments tested the cultural development of children's imitative and improvised movement. The groups tested were kindergarten age (3 to 6 years old) and school age (6 to 8 years old). In kindergarten, tests were given to an experimental group brought up in a government children’s home. Such children live here who could not be left within their family circle because of bad social surroundings or the critical financial position of the family.  Children usually bring in emotional wounds, their psychic position is unsteady, and their education needs special care.  In most of the cases there is danger of emotional dreariness or uncritical raillery.

Education in these boarding schools will raise special problems such as: (a)  a narrow circle of experiences  (b)  lack of adult models of the family, and  (c)  narrow and labile impersonal relations.  Their experiences are lacking in the practices of everyday life through which independence, ability of thinking, and decision making are developed. Models of speech which could be observed in a family circle and with wider acquaintances cannot be replaced by the speech of adults in a children’s home as children more often hear one another’s defective speech.  Incorrect pronunciation of consonants will hinder ability of speech and later, reading and spelling.

Music education seems to be a great help to these children. It is our hypothesis that the method of music education mentioned above will effect a transfer of other characteristics to emotionally disturbed children's personalities. It will balance emotional features, resolve stiff and inhibited personalities, widen their circle of interest, form readiness of speech, and give at the same time a valuable support to the development of the logical apparatus usually retarded by emotional disturbances.  We also apply songs and movements to the teaching of art; we use free forms of representation instead of stiff patterns or imitation. Complex art education built on mutual relations between music-motion-representation has proven especially useful for children of these boarding schools.  The pleasure which they experience in this process of expressing their involvement in the song and play contributes to the loosening of their inhibitions.  In their scribbling, drawing, and modeling, their developing personalities can be seen as their spheres of interest broaden and their relations with people become more definite.

In 1966, we began experiments with twenty 3-year-old children to whom we now give 30- to 35-minute singing lessons twice a week in addition to the two compulsory ones given by nurses.  Otherwise they play singing games (5-10 minutes) outdoors or in the room, and are often put to sleep or awakened with songs.  From time to time we organize little concerts of our own chamber choir (children of 13 years) which sings short pieces of music for their kindergarten audience. We introduce them to the sound of the flute and the violin in the performance of children’s songs. In this way their whole life will be interwoven with musical activities and will be enriched with a great number of experiences. 

The control group was chosen from another children’s home, Móra Ferenc. Prior to the tests, we often visited this home and were convinced that the pedagogical situation was extremely good. Kindergarten children are living in one building close to adults (teachers, nurses, and charwomen), and adults are able to maintain a close personal contact with individual children. Frequent visits assured us that music and gymnastics had been properly taught.  Thus, we considered the kindergarten to be highly suitable as a control group. We also chose another group from a normal kindergarten of the same age (4-5 years old) at Csobánc utca (street). This group consisted of 82 children from the same social surroundings, all of whom live in a normal family environment.  Half of the group attended special music lessons twice a week.  These children made up the normal musical group and the normal control group.

The methods of our research are observation and tests. Observations were made concerning stages of development of musical abilities: 

(a) re-singing of pitch level and melodic motives; 
(b) recognizing sounds of rhythm instruments or one another’s singing voice;  
(c) answering rhythmic motives with clapping or instruments; 
(d) recognizing a song by its melody or rhythm;  
(e)  inner hearing - inner singing of a melody;  
(f) rhythmic movements - steady walk with songs and rhymes; and 
(g) ability in improvisation.

Our observations are tape recorded and written in diaries.
Tests are divided into two groups to examine readiness of observation and readiness of motion.  For the foundation of musical reading and writing, observation plays a very important role. We depend upon varying auditory observations in the kindergarten and many-sided combinations of auditory and visual observations at school age.  Here, Kodály’s intention has already been mentioned that children must be made to observe the similarities and differences in the melodies of 333 Reading Exercises. Although it is conducted in a playful manner, these observations of similarities and small differences are abstracting processes, even at kindergarten age.  Since these children are educated only in auditory observation, tests were used in the research which were suitable for measuring visual observation. Thus, clear transfer can be measured.

TESTS OF OBSERVATION

Two tests with the four groups of kindergarten children were given to investigate their ability of observation. In test one, pictures of animals were put down on a board.  Pictures of the same animals printed on cards were put into a heap face down on the board. The children were to place the card on the picture of the same animal. Cards were given to each child in the same order, and included one alien card not belonging to any of the pictures.  The test consisted of three exercises using one, two, and three boards.  When more than one board was used, the cards were given in alternating order. Figure 1 indicates the average number of mistakes per child. Unfortunately, the music group of the children's home was tested four months earlier than their comparative control group.  Still, the music groups proved superior in the last and most complicated test. These results show an unexpectedly large advantage in favor of the music group, especially in part three, which was the most complicated and tiring.  Analysis of variation showed significant difference only between the children's home group and the normal kindergarten. The difference between the music and the control group was not significant. The results showed that the concentration span of children living in state homes is in relation to their emotional instability; thus, their unsteady character will reduce achievements in tests compared to those coming from a normal family background.

In test two, a house and a doll of tiny colored magnetized pieces were put onto a black metal board. The child had a similar metal board and all the pieces were mixed up in front of him.  He was instructed to put the same house and doll on his board. In the second part we took away the pattern and he had to replace the figures on the board from memory.

Two forms of evaluation were used.  First, the major errors were counted:  how the correct figures were placed on the board (see Figure 2).  

When the little round magnetic parts of the figure were turned upside down, these were considered as minor errors, and are shown in Table 1.  Statistical analysis did not find any difference between the musical and control groups.

Table 1
Minor Errors on Test Two

Subjects

Children’s home musical
Children’s home control
Family background musical
Family background control

To check our results we gave another test in June 1968 to the two groups from the children’s homes.  In this test there was a box from which geometric figures had been cut out.  The exercise was to fit the pieces into their appropriate spaces and the number of correct fittings was counted. The test consisted of three exercises of varying lengths of time.  Figure 3 shows the proportion of gains and proves the better results of music groups.  We must note, however, that emotionally disturbed children have shown a certain instability in concentration: they became tired of the exercise and their achievements dropped in the third exercise.

These tests have only been given to 4-5 year olds whose musical training began only ten months before testing. Statistics have shown that we need larger and more homogeneous groups for the next research period. The period of research is planned for two years and the results of further testing will be published later.

TESTS OF MOVEMENT

It has been observed that the movement culture of emotionally disturbed children is generally poor.  There is a lack of lightness in their movement which is inhibited, rigid, and uncoordinated. It has been our experience that the acquiring of movements in games with songs, and the rhythmical movements of walking while singing, organically adapt the children to their musical education and have dissolved these rigid, inhibited forms of movement. The development of movement culture with this sort of musical aid has also seemed to be useful in the evaluation of the personality of our children.

There was no test series at our disposal with which we could have measured more intensively the movement culture.  For this reason, we experimented with a series of tests consisting of five tests for children of 3-4 and 5-6 years of age. The tests were given to the two music groups, and a control group of similar age was chosen from the above-mentioned training nursery of Móra Ferenc.

The special music group consisted of 7 boys and 11 girls with an average age of 3.10 years.  The control group contained 13 boys and 2 girls, with an average age of 3.9 years.  For the second age group of kindergarten children, the number in the musical group was 11 boys and 9 girls, with an average age of 6.5 years. The control group contained 8 boys and 11 girls with an average age of 6.1 years.

In the first test for the younger group, the children's readiness of observation and imitation, and their exact movements were tested.  One point was given for perfect imitation of movement, half a point for certain mistakes, and no points for a basically wrong exercise. Three points was the maximum possible.  

The second test examined the children’s ability to recognize rhythm of movement. It required that they keep the proper rhythm of arm movements and remember their sequence.  One point was awarded for every beat properly carried out.  

The third test examined the children’s ability to coordinate movements, and measured the sense of balance. 

In the fourth test, small stick designs were used for creating gymnastic exercises. The children tried to express the essence of the motion correctly in simple static positions. The simplest positions of arms and legs were chosen. Three designs were used and 15 seconds were given to express one design. These small stick designs are in a sense an abstract representation of movement. Therefore, carrying out these exercises requires an ability to abstract in close relation with motoric intelligence.  Also, the abilities of observation and precise motion were preconditions. 

The fifth test examined motoric readiness of expression and fantasy of movement in first-year kindergarten children.  A taped short story was presented which provided possibilities for imitative movements. Children had to repeat the story only with movements. Each movement was awarded a point.

In the tests for older children, the first tested the ability to learn arm movements and the sense of clapping in rhythm. In the second test, the children had to jump over a lath without changing their initial body form as an exercise in dynamic coordination.  

There were four repetitions, and each additional movement was considered an error. The third test required the accurate coordination of joined movement of both hands. In the fourth test, five small stick designs of more difficult positions were shown. The evaluation of points was similar to the exercise for 3-4 year olds. In the fifth test, both the ability of motoric expression and the ability of recalling motion were tested. A story offered nine imitation movements. One point was awarded for each movement, and the child had to repeat the entire story with the same movements. The following limitations in the testing are to be regretted:

l. No control group of exactly the same structure as the experimental group of children of 3-4 years of age could be found, since the distribution of sexes was not equal.
2. The average age of the music group of 5-6 year olds was four months older than the experimental group.
3. Tests were not given before the beginning of the musical education and thus initial comparisons could not be made, and statistical elaborations could not be completed

As can be seen in Figure 4, the average number of points awarded for completing tests is similar only in the imitation tests which show a minimal advantage with respect to the control group. In the small stick design tests, there is a moderate difference in the rhythm exercises. In the acting out of a story, a considerable difference can be observed in the results of the musical group.  The largest difference can be observed in the dynamic coordination test. This can be considered one of the most interesting findings of our tests and has shown that the music groups have a better coordination

As can be observed in Figure 5, there is little difference in the accuracy test and small stick designs.  There is a definite difference in the rhythmic exercises on the part of the music group, and the most remarkable difference, again in the musical groups, was observed in the dynamic coordination test.

The research of 6- to 8-year-olds will not be described, but preliminary tests have been given in mathematics, spelling, and movement.  The results show the superiority of the music groups, but because they were selected for the music primary school on the basis of musical hearing and rhythmical ability tests, tests classes are different in certain aspects from nonmusic groups. To create an absolutely clear foundation for the psychological research work, a class was established in Kecskemét, which was nonselected and therefore can be considered as beginning from the same level as the control group. The series of tests for these classes began in the fall of 1968 and will be given twice a year.  This cycle of research has been planned for four years.

The influence on the personality of our method of music education is well known by parents and teachers, but it is necessary to determine more clearly both the formation of some aspect of the personality and the transferred capacities which have been developed in parallel by the music education methods. The results given above indicate the effect of these methods on movement and observation capacities. It has only been three years since research was begun to investigate the nature of music education for emotionally disturbed children and to test the results of this education. These results can also be considered as positive.

The aim of our experiments is to know better the means to assist the development of our children's personalities.  Finally, we hope that the psychological research will contribute to the method itself by showing the most flexible, up-to-date way for its development.